(E) N-terminally truncated PrP binds with less affinity to Dpl, thus permitting it to bind 2M. we identified two Dpl binding partners: rat alpha-1-inhibitor-3 (1I3) and, by sequence homology, alpha-2-macroglobulin (2M), two known plasma metalloproteinase inhibitors. Biochemical investigations excluded the direct interaction of PrPC with either 1I3 or 2M. Nevertheless, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and surface plasmon resonance experiments revealed a high affinity binding occurring between PrPC and Dpl. In light of these findings, we suggest a mechanism for Dpl-induced neurodegeneration in mice expressing Dpl ectopically in the brain, linked to a withdrawal of natural inhibitors of metalloproteinase such as 2M. Interestingly, 2M has been proven to be a susceptibility factor in Alzheimer’s disease, and as our findings imply, it may also play a relevant role in other neurodegenerative disorders, including prion diseases. Introduction Prion diseases, generally known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or TSE, are fatal neurodegenerative disorders due to the conversion of the cellular form of the prion protein (PrPC) into an abnormal, pathogenic and proteinase-resistant form of the same protein (PrPSc). The family of prion diseases comprises Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (acronym CJD), fatal familial insomnia (acronym FFI), and kuru in humans, chronic wasting disease (acronym CWD), bovine spongiform encephalopathy (acronym BSE), and scrapie in deer, cows and sheep, respectively. Once PrPC is converted into its pathogenic isoform, PrPSc, it accumulates in the brain, and its presence and accumulation is linked to neurodegeneration in affected patients and animals [1], [2]. In recent years, doppel protein (Dpl), a PrPC paralog, has been identified as a protein sharing common biochemical and structural properties with the latter [3], [4], [5]. Dpl and the C-terminal domain of PrPC have only approximately 25% of primary aminoacidic sequence identity (Figure 1C), yet their tertiary structure is very similar (Figure 1B), and both share the same secondary structure elements consisting of a three -helix bundle with two short -strands (Figure 1A) [5]. Like PrPC, Dpl has two N-glycosylation sites, and a highly enriched basic aminoacids flexible amino-terminal region which likely contributes to its cellular trafficking (Figure 1A). However, in contrast to PrPC, Dpl is expressed at very low levels in the mouse central nervous system (CNS), whereas its expression is high in non-nervous tissues, e.g. testes. Notably, two transgenic (tg) mouse (Mo) lines ablated for the PrP gene develop late-onset ataxia as well as Purkinje cells and granule cells degeneration in the cerebellum [6], [7]. In these tg lines, Dpl is ectopically upregulated in the CNS. In contrast, other PrP-knockout murine lines, in which Dpl ectopic expression in the CNS is absent, do not develop MKC9989 either ataxia or neurodegeneration. Furthermore, Dpl levels in the CNS proved to be inversely correlated to the onset age of ataxic phenotype [8]. Interestingly, tg mice expressing PrP with amino-proximal deletions (named PrPF) show ataxia and degeneration of the cerebellar granule cell layer within a few weeks after birth [9]. PrPF mutants lack regions absent also in Dpl, therefore sharing structural properties with the latter. Restoration of wild type PrP presence in the CNS of mice expressing either Dpl [8] or PrPF [9] rescues the ataxic phenotype. These findings suggest that Dpl expression may lead to neurodegeneration similar to truncated PrP, and that the wild type PrPC and Dpl may have opposite and antagonistic functions. In fact, cell surface PrPC may have a protective role and MKC9989 antagonize the toxic effect of Dpl in the CNS, either by interacting directly with Dpl, or another protein, or non competitive mechanisms [10]. Indeed, a neuroprotective function for PrPC has been proposed [11], [12], [13]. Open in a separate window Figure 1 Mature PrP and Dpl protein share common structural architectures.(A) PrPC and Dpl have common secondary structure elements, composed by three alpha helices (A, B and C) and two.(A) List of the 29 peptides after MALDI-TOF MS analysis matching the query. polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry analysis, we identified Pde2a two Dpl binding partners: rat alpha-1-inhibitor-3 (1I3) and, by sequence homology, alpha-2-macroglobulin (2M), two known plasma metalloproteinase inhibitors. Biochemical investigations excluded the direct interaction of PrPC with either 1I3 or 2M. Nevertheless, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and surface plasmon resonance experiments revealed a high affinity binding occurring between PrPC and Dpl. In light of these findings, we suggest a mechanism for Dpl-induced neurodegeneration in mice expressing Dpl ectopically in the brain, linked to a withdrawal of natural inhibitors of metalloproteinase such as 2M. Interestingly, 2M has been proven to be a susceptibility factor in Alzheimer’s disease, and as our findings imply, it may also play a relevant role in other neurodegenerative disorders, including prion diseases. Introduction Prion diseases, generally known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or TSE, are fatal neurodegenerative disorders due to the conversion of the cellular form of the prion protein (PrPC) into an abnormal, pathogenic and proteinase-resistant form of the same protein (PrPSc). The family of prion diseases comprises Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (acronym CJD), fatal familial insomnia (acronym FFI), and kuru in humans, chronic wasting disease (acronym CWD), bovine spongiform encephalopathy (acronym BSE), and scrapie in deer, cows and sheep, respectively. Once PrPC is converted into its pathogenic isoform, PrPSc, it accumulates in the brain, and its presence and accumulation is linked to neurodegeneration in affected patients and animals [1], [2]. In recent years, doppel protein (Dpl), a PrPC paralog, has been identified as a protein sharing common biochemical and structural properties with the latter [3], [4], [5]. Dpl and the C-terminal domain of MKC9989 PrPC have only approximately 25% of primary aminoacidic sequence identity (Figure 1C), yet their tertiary structure is very similar (Figure 1B), and both share the same secondary structure elements consisting of a three -helix bundle with two short -strands (Figure 1A) [5]. Like PrPC, Dpl has two N-glycosylation sites, and a highly enriched basic aminoacids flexible amino-terminal region which likely contributes to its cellular trafficking (Figure 1A). However, in contrast to PrPC, Dpl is expressed at very low levels in the mouse central nervous system (CNS), whereas its expression is high in non-nervous tissues, e.g. testes. Notably, two transgenic (tg) mouse (Mo) lines ablated for the PrP gene develop late-onset ataxia as well as Purkinje cells and granule cells degeneration in the cerebellum [6], [7]. In these tg lines, Dpl is ectopically upregulated in the CNS. In contrast, other PrP-knockout murine lines, in which Dpl ectopic expression in the CNS is absent, do not develop either ataxia or neurodegeneration. Furthermore, Dpl levels in the CNS proved to be inversely correlated to the onset age of ataxic phenotype [8]. Interestingly, tg mice expressing PrP with amino-proximal deletions (named PrPF) show ataxia and degeneration of the cerebellar granule cell layer within a few weeks after birth [9]. PrPF mutants lack regions absent also in Dpl, therefore sharing structural properties with the latter. Restoration of wild type PrP presence in the CNS of mice expressing either Dpl [8] or PrPF [9] rescues the ataxic phenotype. These findings suggest that Dpl expression may MKC9989 lead to neurodegeneration similar to truncated PrP, and that the wild type PrPC and Dpl may have opposite and antagonistic functions. In fact, cell surface PrPC may have a protective role and antagonize the toxic effect of Dpl in the CNS, either by interacting directly with Dpl, or another protein, or non competitive mechanisms [10]. Indeed, a neuroprotective function for PrPC has been proposed [11], [12], [13]. Open in a separate window Figure 1 Mature PrP.